Authority

    The Sanskrit textual canon is often regarded as a centralized source of yogic authority…

          In South Asia, yogic authority is closely tied to the reputability of one’s guru and the longevity of their lineage, as I explained in part two of this series, Antiquity. Sanskrit texts are some of our oldest surviving records of yoga; by proxy of their old age, they are often regarded as authoritative. We can reference the Sanskrit textual canon to assess whether our modern teachers are still aligned with the historical systems of knowledge from which they claim authority. 

          On a more practical level, Sanskrit is the lingua franca of the international yoga community – it is the language we all share. Some poses are primarily known by their Sanskrit names, such as ṭiṭṭibhāsana (firefly pose) and piñcha mayūrāsana (forearm stand). These Sanskrit words provide a shared vernacular between yoga teachers and students everywhere; whether you practice in the U.S., India, or anyplace in between, you’ll hear the same language. The prevalence of Sanskrit in modern yoga helps to unify students’ experiences across yoga settings, mitigating those postural cues that are weirdly studio-specific (i.e. Starlight™ salutations), completely unhelpful (i.e. roadkill pose), or just hilariously long in English (i.e. one-legged-revolved-reversed-exalted-warrior-drawing-its-bow-pose). Yoga teachers can also use Sanskrit terminology to signal that they are engaged with the broader yoga community, which establishes that teacher’s authority and credibility in the eyes of their students.

    BUT yoga has historically been developed and transmitted by many diverse communities, not just Sanskrit-literate ones.

          The notion of Sanskrit as a centralized, streamlined, or singularly authoritative point of reference for all yoga is not at all the reality throughout South Asian history. As I discussed in my previous article on Antiquity, Sanskrit has never been the central language or culture, but rather the elite, dominant one, and members of those elite groups work consciously to position Sanskrit as the primary representative language and culture for all yogis.  

Sanskritization

          Through a mutually reinforced process known as Sanskritization, the customs and beliefs of various low-caste, Dalit, and non-Hindu communities have been subsumed and sublimated into the Vedic-Sanskrit tradition over time. As a result, the Sanskrit texts present an amalgamation of diverse practices from various cultures and religions – not just practices originating in Brahmanical Hinduism. This phenomenon was first named by socio-cultural anthropologist M. N. Srinivas, who observed that lower caste groups in India would emulate the practices of upper or dominant castes to improve their social status within the Hindu hierarchy. Whether as a strategy for peaceful coexistence or as a subconscious means of seeking recognition and belonging from the dominant varnas, these groups adopt Brahmanical ritual behaviors, therein reinforcing the implicit supremacy of Brahmanical Hinduism over all other Indic religions and cultures.

          To continue this cycle, upper-caste elites choose certain elements from lower-caste and folk traditions, which are then sanitized to suit the orthodox Hindu sensibility and assimilated into the Sanskrit textual tradition. As these appropriated practices gain popularity within dominant social circles, lower caste communities then re-adopt and re-incorporate the sanitized versions. Thus, Indic culture has historically been curated by the Sanskrit-speaking elite – who shamelessly steal from marginalized communities to pad their positions of power atop the Hindu caste hierarchy.

          Now, dominant caste groups are lobbying for a Sanskrit revival in modern India. They seek to reinstall Sanskrit – the priestly language of Vedic Hinduism – as a national language of India. This movement would officially recognize Sanskrit as the mother tongue for all Hindi speakers, thereby asserting an inextricable Hindu essence or a “Hindu-ness” inherent to the secular land and country of India. Sanskrit language is therefore central to heated geopolitical debates about indigeneity, ethnicity, and national identity in South Asia.

Socio-Religious Pluralism in Yoga

          Yoga is and always has been a distillation of spiritual ideas and practices from many traditions – not just Hinduism, and certainly not just Sanskrit-centric Brahmanical Hinduism. Though many of the classical yoga texts were written in Sanskrit, they reflect elements from Sufism, Jainism, Buddhism, and a huge gamut of proto-Hindu/ tribal/ folk traditions, in addition to Vedic-Sanskrit-derived Hinduism. These diverse spiritual traditions were transmitted orally for centuries – and though they were eventually recorded in written Sanskrit, the language of those records was no indication of the way those religions were practiced in everyday life. Indeed, yoga has always been practiced in vernacular languages. It simply survived in Sanskrit because high-caste elites had the resources and the incentive to preserve it – in their own carefully curated and controlled way.

          When we consider the influence of women, Sufi saints, Buddhist monks, low-caste Hindus, Dalits, Adivasis, tribal peoples, and other vernacular speakers on the historical development of yoga, Sanskrit seems like an arbitrary representation of yogic authority – and frankly, it’s a slap in the face to all the yogis throughout history who were precluded from Sanskrit literacy. Yoga’s authority does not rest solely in Sanskrit, just as it does not rest solely in Hinduism or Brahmanical orthodoxy. If we continue to uphold Sanskrit texts as the epitome of yogic authority, we overlook the invaluable folk and vernacular traditions through which yoga was developed and transmitted for centuries.

Author’s Note on Caste in Modern Yoga

          Discussions of caste in yoga are frequently swept under the rug – both in India and in the United States – and therefore I am called to acknowledge my own positionality as a high-caste Desi-American yogi. The Indian diaspora in the United States is largely constituted by upper-caste individuals, whose expatriation from India was enabled by the educational and occupational opportunities to which their families have had disproportionate access for generations. As a result, many Desi yoga teachers in the U.S. come from dominant caste backgrounds – and I am no exception.

          Upper-caste diaspora Indians tend to promote a highly Sanskritic form of yoga abroad, which contributes to the process of Sanskritization and has concerning implications and complications for yoga back in India. I cannot change my caste, but I would be remiss to ignore the many privileges afforded by my family name. Furthermore, I do not wish to continue these harmful cycles of Sanskritization, Brahmanization, and Hinduization; rather, I hope to champion the plurality inherent to yoga by elevating the voices of Desi yogis from all religious and caste backgrounds.

Visit the Inspiration tab to read about my embodied experience of Authority in modern yoga →

The Dismemberment of Purusha

          My mat is an arena for sacrifice: of time, of energy, of Ego.

          As yogi, I am both ritualist and victim, my body and mind surrendered to a greater cosmic flow.

          Like Purusha, the primordial man, I sense the universe within me, preparing to spring forth in an act of radiant creation.

          From my mouth issues the sound of Om, harkening to the scriptures of yore.

          My arms expand into warrior form as proudly I string the bow of my spirit.

          Through my thighs, which sustain each movement, I draw energy to feed my oblation.

          Down to my feet, such humble servants, which bear my weight despite their fatigue.

          And as I step into the fire, my mind is resolute,

          for as my body breaks into pieces,

          I call a new world order into being –

one where my mouth

and my arms

and my thighs

and yes, even my feet

are recognized equal for their sacrifice.

          Visit the Practice tab for actionable tips, self-reflection questions, and resources to learn more about Authority in modern yoga →

Practical Tips for Yoga Teachers:

• Develop your own authority as a yoga teacher by learning more about yoga history and pursuing CECs (continuing education credits) beyond your initial teacher training. Yoga teachers must also be yoga students for life!
• Diversify your yoga library with texts translated from vernacular South Asian languages, like the Haṭha Ratnāvalī and the Jogapradīpyakā. You can also listen to lectures by South Asian gurus, who are much more likely to convey their teachings in their local language (Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, etc.) or in English rather than in Sanskrit.
• As yoga teachers, we are called to acknowledge our own positionalities and privileges; remember that to be “exempt” from caste designations – as a white person, as a westerner, as a diaspora Indian, as a non-Desi etc. – is a privilege in itself.
• Be wary of groups/ individuals who claim to preserve the singular “pure” form of yoga. Yoga can be many things at once, and its many manifestations have not only coexisted for centuries – they have coalesced to make yoga what it is today!

Questions for Reflection:

• What texts did I read in my yoga teacher trainings?
  • How many of them were originally written in Sanskrit?
  • Why did my teachers assign these texts?
• What posture names do I know in Sanskrit?
  • How many of these postures have English names?
  • When/ why might I use the English name for this pose, rather than the Sanskrit?
• Do I believe that one form of yoga can be/ is better or more authoritative than all others? Why or why not?
• How can I honor yoga’s diverse history in my own practice/ teaching?

Resources for Further Learning:

Birch, Jason, and Jacqueline Hargreaves. “Premodern Yogāsanas and Modern Postural Yoga Practice: Distinct Regional Collections of Āsanas on the Eve of Colonialism.” Journal of Yoga Studies 4 (2023): 31–82. doi:10.34000/JoYS.2023.V4.01.

Chapple, Christopher Key, John Thomas Casey, and Haribhadrasūri. Reconciling Yogas: Haribhadra’s Collection of Views on Yoga. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003.

Ernst, Carl W. Refractions of Islam in India: Situating Sufism and Yoga. New Delhi: Sage, 2016.

Foulston, Lynn. At the Feet of the Goddess: The Divine Feminine in Local Hindu Religion. Brighton, England; Sussex Academic Press, 2002.

Jacobsen, Knut (editor). Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Leiden; Brill, 2005.

Mallinson, James, and Mark Singleton. Roots of Yoga. London, UK: Penguin Books, 2017.

Ramaswamy. “Sanskrit for the Nation.” Modern Asian Studies. 33 (1999): 339–81.

“Sanskritization.” Oxford Reference. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100441148.

Shah, A. M. The Legacy of M. N. Srinivas: His Contribution to Sociology and Social Anthropology in India. Abingdon, Oxon; Routledge, 2020.

Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar. The Cohesive Role of Sanskritization and Other Essays. Delhi; Oxford University Press, 1989.

White, David Gordon (editor). Yoga in Practice. Princeton; Princeton University Press, 2012.

          Let me know what you think in the comments below!